Culture and Cognition Essay

Culture may be defined as a combination of different traits of a social group. These traits or ways of life can be language, arts, sciences, thoughts, spirituality, social activities, interactions, and many more (â€Å"Definition†, n. d. ). The world has many peoples and thus many cultures, thus each has their own beliefs, traditions, and customs. Another characteristic of a certain culture may be cognition. Because of human diversity in traditions and customs, there is also diversity in intelligence. According to Cole, Gay, Glick, and Sharp (as cited in Sternberg, 2004), certain behaviors may be smart in one culture but plainly stupid in another (1971). Culture and Intelligence According to Robert Sternberg in his article entitled â€Å"Culture and Intelligence†, intelligence cannot be fully measured, developed, and conceptualized when it is outside the cultural context. This creates an impression that intelligence is a norm and being a deviant from that norm would mean less intelligence (2004, p. 1). An example given by Sternberg about intelligence tests shows an evidence of his argument. Any intelligence test created in one culture may not be valid in another culture. Sternberg also constructed models in order to determine if the culture has a significant effect on intelligence. On the third model, the dimensions of intelligence are the same as with the other models. However, the instruments used are different from the other models. The measurement process was therefore derived from the culture being studied and not from outside it. As this is done, the psychological meanings of the scores of the assessments change from one culture to another. Culture and Cognition Intelligence is just one of the cognitive characteristics of man. Culture, as well as social systems has a role in developing the people’s system of thought. This is according to Richard Nisbett, Incheol Choi, Laiping Peng, and Ara Norenzayan, when they studied the difference between easterners and westerners in terms of cognitive processes (2001). They stated that east Asians are holistic in their cognitive processes, focusing on an entire field and its causality. On the other hand, westerners such as Americans are analytic because they pay more attention on the object and the categories, making use of rules such as formal logic. The authors of this article suggest that the origin of these differences is traceable to different social systems (p. 291). They were able to conclude that there is still a very great difference between cultures. It is because of the circumstances brought about by these cultures that one process will always be different from another. Furthermore, the norms or the normative standards for though will differ across cultures (p. 306). The influence of culture has many implications in cognition. This insight may change the very definition of intelligence as related to different social systems. This also has a great effect in cognitive assessment since one measuring tool may not be appropriate for all cultures. Although international communication is already established, this information would give more understanding to people as to how others with different cultures are different to them in terms of learning styles, perception, and other aspects of cognition. It would also change the perception on people who are considered as intellectually inferior since intelligence no longer focuses on a dominant or normative standard set by those perceived as superior. References â€Å"Definition of Culture†, (n. d. ). Roshan Culture Heritage Institute. Retrieved 24 May 2010 from http://www. roshan-institute. org/templates/System/details. asp? id=39783&PID =474552. Nisbett, R. E. , Peng, K. , Choi, I. , & Norenzayan, A. (2001). â€Å"Culture and Systems of Thought: Holistic versus Analytic Cognition†. Psychological Review. 108(2), pp. 291-310. Sternberg, R. (2004). â€Å"Culture and Intelligence†. American Psychologist. 59(5), pp. 325- 338.

High School Attendance Essay

High school represents a stage where majority of students grow up and attain an advanced degree of self-comprehension. This period is therefore very vital both to immediate school life and the life beyond school. Mandatory school turn out could well reflect the importance placed on schooling as well as the appreciation of the role education plays in preparing children and youth to become productive adults. Students who consistently attend school are exposed to more learning than their counterparts who exhibit infrequent school turn out. Chances for students excelling academically are directly proportional to the number of instances students are present in school. On the contrary, scholars who skip school are more likely to be involved in grave social harms and enter into troubles. Truancy, or Skipping School, is the term given to unjustifiable school absenteeism with no knowledge of guardians or parents. Recurring illnesses and family problems usually result in absenteeism. However, such absenteeism is not of crucial concern to school administrators. Rather, unjustifiable absenteeism is the bone of contention plaguing schools both in America and elsewhere. Chronic absenteeism predisposes student offenders to both academic and social problems. Every state requires all school-age juveniles to be present at school. Research has persistently established that a student’s academic accomplishment is more closely linked to school punctuality and attendance than any other factor that is controllable by the student and their families. Recurrent student absentees depict poor performance and are prone to penalization through exam scores. It is necessary that students are present in classrooms to profit by listening to teachers and interacting and exchanging ideas with fellow students and teachers. Extreme nonattendance influences the classroom culture by occasioning unsatisfactory or incomplete work, undermining of academic progress, reduced course scores and limited ability to satisfy curricular principles. Thus students who desire to excel academically ought to consistently attend classes; instructors ought to also courage school attendance. Constant absenteeism and truancy usually are prerequisites to premature exit from school and negatively affect students, the grown ups they eventually become and surrounding society. The National Center for School Engagement in 2007 stated that truants exhibit lower scores, get barred out of school, leave school or they have lower high school graduation rates than counterparts exhibiting lower instances of unjustifiable absenteeism. It was also established that particular schools expel student low-achievers and truants with a view to push up mean academic performance as reflected by grade promotion, grades and graduation frequencies. Chronic truancy student offenders exhibit some mannerisms that interrupt classes thus making teachers’ instruction work difficult and hampering students’ learning experiences. Administrators are thus obligated to spend more time attending to disciplinary concerns at the expense of normal school activities. Findings of the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) 2001 research link truancy to additional problems like drug and substance misuse, mob activity, vandalism, delinquency, weighty criminal activity( burglary and automobile theft) and quitting school. Other researchers have determined that truancy per se can result in, (or strengthen present) risk activities, provided that out-of-school students are not supervised and are alienated from positive peers’ and adults’ influence. Male criminal tendencies’ studies have linked truancy with later-year violent offences. In addition, grown ups who exhibited truancy in juvenile years have increases likelihood of having poor social dexterity, hold low paying occupations, are extra probable to depend on Welfare Support and are increasingly likely to be imprisoned. Gangs of young individuals roaming the streets at school times appear menacing. Increased truancy in Tacoma Washington was linked to juvenile-committed crimes like vandalism and burglary. School districts having elevated truancy instances exhibit rock bottom educational performance rates. Such connection usually is established by way of truancy regulations which consider automatic course failure where scholars are often absent. Thus scholars who inconsistently attend school are less likely to clear from high school. The National Center for Education Statistics estimates that from 1992 to 2002, 3 million juveniles (16-21 years) have not completed or have not been admitted to high school. Such figures represent close to eleven percent of United States juveniles. In the group, disproportionate minority scholars’ numbers exist. For instance, thirty percent Hispanics don’t successfully go through school. The figures go up to forty four percent if overseas-born students are included. High school failure affects individual students as well as the society. Affected scholars are unable to join college, are more prone to getting low-salaried occupations and experience political indifference. In return, such individuals represent losses in levy income, may have health complications, and are a burden on communal services. The US Department of Labor estimates that 6. 7% of adult persons without high school qualifications are probable to be without a job. On the other hand, as concerns those having an undergraduate degree, a mere 1. 8 percent have unemployment probabilities. Truancy affects not only the youth offenders but also the grown ups they ultimately become. Grown ups who exhibited youth chronic truancy at school are faced with higher risks of experiencing many problems such as poor mental and physical health, welfare and poverty, incarceration and bringing up children who also depict problem mannerisms. A 1996 to 1997 research indicates that school administrators regarded absenteeism, tardiness, physical disagreements, and skipping classes as the leading three grave discipline matters in schools. Past studies have revealed that school attendance rates start dwindling at middle school. a mere 55. 1 percent of Latino learners, 87. 5 percent of Korean American scholars, 42. 6 percent of African American learners, 90 percent of Japanese American scholars , 94. 1 percent of Chinese American scholars and 52. 1 percent of Native American learners are present in 91 to 100 percent of their entire classes. A 1995 study in Los Angeles Unified School District concluded that five percent of scholars unjustifiably absent themselves from school per day. A similar Denver survey established that twenty percent of students in community schools satisfied the requirements to be regarded as truant in 2006. By high school, numbers progressively drop thus upholding inter-group gaps. A mere 37. 8 percent of Filipino scholars, 21. 5 percent of native American scholars, 24 percent of Latino scholars, 59. 8 percent of Korean American scholars, 68. 43 percent of Chinese American scholars and 18. 6 percent of African American scholars attend ninety one to one hundred percent of classes. A Minneapolis study established that learners who attended 95% of class time had double chances of excelling in State language-arts examinations as compared to counterparts who attended for 85% class time. After review of attendance guidelines, it was established that Minnesota students having one percent attendance increase had I% State mathematics and reading examinations increases. It was also determined that mathematics grades are principally sensitive and responsive to attendance variations. In Rochester and Buffalo, research concluded that learners having between eighty five and one hundred percent State English Examinations’ scores had been present in school for a mean of ninety three percent of stipulated time. Students scoring below fifty four percent had attended for eighty five percent of school time. San Franciscan reports illustrate conspicuous disparities between achievement and attendance which recently prompted the city’s school monitor to instruct local authorities to maintain consistent school attendance rates. A Connecticut Naugatuck High School study revealed that ninety percent of frequent student absentees failed in not less than one course in First Quarter scores. Timely school attendance is crucial in maintaining the knowledge environment as well as satisfying personal learning requirements. Students increase the probabilities of achieving sustainability in learning and nurturing of desirable habits cherished by potential post-school employers by observing punctuality and consistent school turnout. Poor school turnout can result in poor examination results, pre-mature school exit and poor life opportunities for students. Research findings have established that students, who consistently attend school thus obtaining higher scores, enjoy school-life more and are happier after exiting school. Proper school attendance also results in better employment prospects and consequently reduced welfare reliance. By consistently attending classes, students area able to obtain the knowledge, attitudes plus skills which are essential for efficient school and later-life learning. Poor turn out is linked to learner alienation plus disengagement, factors which could result in school drop out. The consequences arising from school non-attendance are grave for students. Research has established that students who develop the habits of being punctual and ever-present at school have the inherent conviction that school life will aid them attain future objectives. Such students also gain skills in budgeting their time so as to maintain punctuality, since they know in their subconscious, that their presence in class maximizes learning experiences. Such students grow to become a mutual society of learners who attain educational excellence and develop essential skills necessary to transform them into imaginative thinkers, enduring learners and accountable community associates in a dynamic diverse world. When large numbers of students are consistently absent, co-operative efforts between teacher and students to develop skill are thwarted. Other than failing academically, frequent student class absentees have higher probabilities of finding themselves on the wrong side of the law and occasion community problems. An Arizona Rodel Community Scholars 2008 research involving tracking scholars from nursery school to high school established that exit patterns and poor attendance are related. Obvious behavioral disparities, between students who pursue education up to graduation and drop outs, were detected. Drop outs had absented themselves by a mean of one hundred and twenty four days by the time they were in grade eight. Truancy negatively affects school and communities economically in the long run. State assistance is usually disbursed to districts and schools on the basis of mean daily turn out. This is especially true for schools that depend on financial assistance on the basis of Full Time Equivalent principles. Monetary losses owing to high absenteeism rates are extreme. For instance, absenteeism results in $19 loss for each student for every day in Unified School District of Oakland. The figures translate to $4 million each year. Truancy therefore has the potential to influence the outcome of a school. Numerous States’ school expenditure projections are developed based on mean daily turn outs per school. Such expenditure projections are harmed owing to student absenteeism. Incase numerous students consistently absent themselves; schools are left with little money to cater for necessary classroom requirements. Utilization of turnout as a pointer to the effectiveness of a school influences the disbursement of national wealth to districts and schools. Since truancy is usually a prerequisite for quitting school, public coffers are ultimately affected by the vice. Research has determined that a person who drops out of high school expends a life-span mean of $200,000 of public finances more than similar expenditure for conventional high school students. Such additional public expenditure results from lost levy income, criminal integrity, medical care and expenditures on community services and imprisonment. In most schools, students are accountable for make-up activities related to excusable absenteeism. An appropriate time, prior to or following conventional school time, is sought to by students handle the work assisted by teachers. Incase students are unavailable during this time, they have to set other occasions to pick assignments and submit the same to teachers. This is quite inconveniencing for students and could lead to low productivity and thus lower grades. Schools exhibiting high truancy rates experience reduced student learning and also reduced instructional instances. When absent, students miss learning experiences and teachers have to attempt top offer remediation upon resurfacing of the students. This results in extra reduction of instructional occasions by fellow students. Absenteeism consequences pour out of the school into the community. Low educational achievement coupled with progressive reduction of tuition time among chronic student absentees is a sure recipe for imminent school quitting. Drop outs adopt delinquent and criminal lifestyles affecting society tremendously. A 1999 Lee and Lotz research has revealed that delinquency is more among poor performing students with erratic attendances who then quit school. Another 1993 study states that truancy precipitates delinquency and grown up crime later as is depicted in Georgia where 82% of prisoners are drop outs from high school. Some schools require that students be present at school for a minimum of ninety percent of school sessions each term. School management boards could reject progression to subsequent grades to students who violate these stipulations. some existing regulations state that class absenteeism, with the exception of conventional instances, is factored in determining percent attendance as well as promotion eligibility. Some tougher penalties have been determined elsewhere. For instance, Connecticut’s authorities have enacted regulation that calls for imposition of fines amounting to $25 per day, to the offending student, the parents or both, for chronic truancy.

Explore the Ways in Which Bullies and Victims Are Present in Lord of the Flies and Dna Essay

English coursework, James Luxton Explore the ways in which bullies and victims are presented in Lord of the Flies and DNA. Bullies and Victims play vital roles in both the novel and the play. The authors, Golding and Kelly, both put their characters through similar trials. In Lord of the Flies, Golding’s characters turn from normal school boys, to savages who are prepared to kill one another to gain power. Golding suggests that under certain circumstances, people will naturally begin to become more violent and savage. In DNA the characters are thrust into a world of secrecy where they have to cover things up to save themselves, Kelly himself wrote this; ‘I don’t think I write characters who are bad, I think I write characters who are trying to do the right thing, but are failing’. Kelly gives no description to the lives of his characters before the death of Adam, suggesting that they may have lead innocent lives, but they have been thrust into a world of violence that spirals out of contro l. In Lord of the Flies, Golding impresses upon the reader how children’s judgements of their peers are based around their physical appearance which will directly impact whether they are seen as possible leaders or victims. In contrast, Kelly gives us no description of his characters’ appearance and offers no real clear reason why Adam is the victim; in this way the violence is less readily understood, and ultimately more frightening. Golding clearly demonstrates to the reader how physical appearance effects a character’s treatment in the opening chapter of Lord of the Flies. Even though they have just survived a plane crash and are apparently the only survivors on the island, Ralph constantly snubs Piggy; based on the fact that Piggy is fat, has asthma, and also wears glasses. Ralph shuns him, despite Piggy being incredibly intelligent, and it is Piggy who suggests most of the things for the boys to do, such as using the conch to call an assembly. Ralph doesn’t realise the true value of Piggy until after his death. ‘There was no Piggy to talk sense’ shows Ralph’s despair. When he really needed help, Piggy was always there to offer advice, whereas now, after his death, Ralph doesn’t know what to do. Through this Golding is inferring that people judge others solely on their appearance, and people who appear weak will always be targeted by society, no matter how intelligent they are. In complete contrast, Kelly gives the reader no description of any character in DNA, and in fact no description of the  scenery. Kelly gives no clear indication of why Adam is the victim, which suggests that any other one of the characters in the play may have been the victim, and on a much wider scale, it suggests that anybody in society may be susceptible to becoming a victim; this makes the violence that the group inflict on Adam much more frightening, because we are more likely to think that this could even happen to us. Kelly shows us through his depiction of Adam just how desperate some people are to become part of a group. Adam must continually show loyalty to them all in order to feel safe. They become so desperate to be popular and accepted by people, they are willing to do anything for the group or the people in power; to the point where they are literally willing to risk their lives. Kelly also depicts just how far a group of ‘bullies’ will go to test loyalty. The group made Adam ‘run across the motorway’ and ‘nick some Vodka’; these criminal and life-threateni ng activities were readily undertaken by Adam even though Jan acknowledges that ‘you could tell he was scared’. Alarmingly, the group were simply testing ‘how far he’ll go’. Kelly demonstrates how groups can manipulate people and exploit their fear and desperation to belong rather than be alone. . Kelly shows this through Mark when he says ‘we can make him do, we can make him do-‘ Mark’s repletion and unfinished sentence suggests that he was possibly so uncomfortable with what was done that he struggles to fully acknowledge it. Although he claims that they were ‘having a laugh, really, he was laughing’, his words give him away. He sounds as if he is trying to convince himself and the separation of the word’ really’ makes him sound desperate. Golding also suggests to the reader just how desperate people are to become part of a group, and how in some situations, becoming part of a group may literally be a life and death decision. Ralph, Jack and Simon set out to explore the island, and Piggy suggests to Ralph that he should go too, because he ‘was with him when he found the conch’ and he ‘was with him before anyone else was’. Ralph seemingly tries to put Piggy down gently by saying ‘you’re no good on a job like this’ implying, again, because Piggy is fat and has asthma, he won’t be able to keep up and he will be a burden to the other boys. In contrast Jack is blunter with Piggy. He simply says ‘we don’t want you, thre e’s enough’. In this, Jack shows obvious contempt for Piggy. When he firsts speaks to Piggy all he has to offer is ‘you’re talking too much, shut up fatty’. Jack’s obvious loathing of Piggy is evident  throughout the novel. Through Jack’s first contact with Piggy it strengthens the idea that children judge people solely on looks, and as well as this it is obvious that the constant name calling and bullying of Piggy will render him the victim of the boys throughout the novel. Both Golding and Kelly alarm their readers with evidence of real violence from the bullies to their chosen victims. Violence with stones occurs both in Lord of the Flies and DNA, but they have different consequences. In Lord of the Flies the violent acts begins with Maurice and Roger kicking through the littleuns’ sandcastles. Before the arrival of Roger and Maurice, the littleuns’ seem content with being detached from the other boys. Three boys played on the beach, ‘if not happily, at least with absorbed attention’. Golding suggests that the littleuns’ had nothing else to do besides eat, sleep and play, so the novelty of the being able to do anything has worn off, but ‘with absorbed at tention’ indicates they still posses the innocence of childhood, so they carry on playing regardless. In contrast, once Roger and Maurice had kicked over their sandcastles, the littleuns’ seemed disinterested, ‘so they made no protest’. Maurice kicks sand into Percival’s eyes, and his reaction to doing this is interesting. Maurice feels guilt through the description of his actions. Instead of staying with Roger, ‘he muttered something about a swim and broke into a trot’. The use of the word ‘muttered’ is significant because it infers that Maurice is trying to create excuses for himself, which shows unease at his actions. In his decision to run to the boys who are swimming, Golding shows that Maurice wants to detach himself from Roger. It is also noteworthy that he runs away from Roger towards the other boys, inferring that Maurice wishes to distance himself from Roger and the possibility of further actions. Johnny, one of the other littleuns’ playing around the sandcastles, then begins to copy the actions of Maurice; he begins to throw sand into Percival’s eyes. This is reminiscent of the Bandura experiment of 1977, in which he placed an adult in a room with a young child. The adult was given a Bobo doll, which he was told to abuse repeatedly in the presence of the child. The adult then left and the Bobo doll was given to the child. Over time the child would begin the re-enact the actions of the adult, the child would begin to abuse the Bobo doll; this suggests that children are influenced by a person in authority, and that they will copy their actions. Johnny repeats the actions undertaken by  Maurice, and this suggests that natural order on the island is beginning to weaken, and that aggression and violence is taking over, now even the youngest children on the island are beginning to experiment with violence. Golding then demonstrates this experimentation of violence t hrough Roger’s ‘stalking’ of Henry, the third littleun’ that was playing around the sandcastles. Henry ‘wandered off along the beach’, he detaches himself from the rest of group, in this sense his exposes himself and leaves himself vulnerable, but in doing this it shows the reader that he still posses childhood innocence and naivety. Roger follows Henry, hiding in the shadows along the beach. Golding creates and air of menace around roger through his ‘stalking’ of Henry. As well as this he suggests to the reader that Roger has no fear, when coconuts ‘as big as rugby balls’ , ‘fell about him with a series of hard thumps’. This lack of care for his own safety is frightening because he doesn’t think in the expected way of a young child. The violent acts Roger then commits are frightening because they are simply not expected of a young child. Roger ‘picked up a stone, aimed, and threw it at Henry-threw to miss’. But then he doesn’t stop there. He continues with these violent acts, he gathers ‘a handful of stones and began to throw them’. Roger’s violent acts tell the reader that now almost all of the expected childhood innocence has gone, and that the victims are starting to become apparent. The young, weaker children will be picked on because they are ‘batty’ and even some of the older boys such as Piggy and Simon will be targeted by looks and personalities. The violen ce on the island becomes more real and much more terrifying because the violence that would normally be expected of adults is being carried out by young children. In DNA the use of stones is much more violent, to the point where it leads to a death. The group continue to humiliate Adam, and they continue to test his loyalty to the group. They ‘went up the grille.’ They force Adam to climb a fence and go walk over a grille covering a hole. This alone is potentially life threatening to Adam. The group see that he is scared, and the group mind set is simply to taunt him and to humiliate him. They then being to start ‘pegging’ stones at him. The use of the word ‘pegging’ is important because it suggest to the reader that the group are actually trying to hit Adam ‘just for a laugh’. Even when the stones hit Adam directly on the head, they carry on laughing at him, because ‘the shock on his face is so†¦funny.’ When Adam slips and falls into the hole underneath the grille, that’s when it becomes evident that Mark, the character describing the ‘stoning’, realises the consequences of their actions. He repeats ‘so he’s†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ a number of times. It is clear that he is unable to come to terms with the fact that he has participated in a murder, and it takes John Tate, the assumed leader of the group, who earlier banned the word ‘dead’, to finish Mark’s sentence. ‘Dead. He’s dead’. In Lord of the Flies the same violent symbol is used by Jack and Roger. The sharpening of a stick at both ends. The symbol first comes into use after the ‘hunters’ kill a pig. He orders Roger to ‘ram on end in the earth’. After doing this, Jack, who has decapitated that dead pig, then ‘jammed the soft throat down on the pointed end if the stick’ this is the first real sign that the boys have transcende d into savages. Jack then says ‘it’s a gift’ for the beast. Through this it suggests that the boys want to pacify the ‘beast’, and in killing the pig and offering its head it’s almost as if they are worshiping it, as if it has become like a god in which they must pay tribute to. When Roger sharpens the stick at two ends, the meaning of this is much more menacing. The boys have now turned into savages, after the deaths of Piggy and Simon, Jack is adamant that Ralph must be captured, and it is evident that Ralph will eventually be killed after torture if he is caught. Ralph is hiding from the rest of the boys, but he meets Sam’n’Eric one night so he can find out what will happen to him. At first the twins are reluctant to tell him what Jack has planned, but then came ‘the incomprehensible reply’, ‘Roger sharpened a stick a both ends’. Ralph is unable to see the true meaning in this, but it is obvious to the reader that Jack wants the same fate for Ralph, as the pigs head earlier in the novel. Roger throughout the novel is presented as the ruthless bully, from when he was throwing stones at Henry, he was the one who released the rock that killed Piggy, and now it is clear that he has been ordered to literally bring back Ralph’s head. The most frightening moment in DNA comes as a threat from Cathy once she has found Adam. She finds him ‘living in a hedge’ and after she tries to coax him out, Cathy openly admits that she ‘used violence’, she ‘threatened to gouge one of his eyes out’ this is a reference to Shakespeare’s King Lear when Goneril and Reagan rip out Gloucester’s eyes. Cathy throughout the play is shown to be the most frightening character. She is solely motivated by becoming famous through  interviews after Adams memorial, she says ‘it’s quite exciting’, suggesting that she enjoys the violence of the situation and she is enjoying the spot light. She has no consideration for Adam’s well being, she is self absorbed. In Richard’s speech at the end of the play, he tells Phil that Cathy is ‘insane’, and that ‘She cut a first year’s finger off’. Cathy and Roger are similar in that they both seem to enjoy inflicting pain on other people; they both come across as sadists. Their actions are terrifying to the audience because their extreme acts of violence would normally have been carried out by adults, but because they are both children, and Roger being so young, the violence is much more frightening. In Richards’s final speech in DNA, he is sitting in a field talking to Phil. This reminds us Leah, who throughout the play has long monologs when she is talking at Phil, in hope of a response. Phil blanks Richard, which tells the audience that he shuts out everybody, and that his silence wasn’t personal to Leah. The scene also suggests that nothing has changed, and it makes the audience reflect on the characters. Golding’s portrayal of the boys stays clearly on the same route. It’s suggested that Jack is evil and that evil continues through the novel, whereas Kelly makes us remember in the final scene of Leah, through Richard, and that Kelly wants to make us reflect on our views of each character, because they could be interchangeable, and they can represent anyone in society.

Gender Bias and Employment Discrimination Law Case Study - 78

Gender Bias and Employment Discrimination Law - Case Study Example If it is gender bias that we are concerned with, then that would imply distinguishing reactions towards two identical humans- identical in lifestyle, intelligence, competence, goals and many other factors - which the one distinction between them, which one is a male and the other is a female. This is exactly not a situation, which exists in our actual, real world. Practically, this fact makes it easier for females to internalize unfair criticisms as valid. If your work is discarded for a clearly bad reason, such as, it is because I am a woman, then you have no other way, but to dismiss the one who rejected them as biased, and; thus, not worth taking seriously. Â  I consider using experiments to tell which positions are fit for men and which are fit for women is a positive route to follow. At least we know that a study has been conducted by experts so the findings are reliable and the recommendations they give can be applied and the outcomes will be effective. However, I also feel that people should be allowed to hold various positions, not because of whether their bodies meet the physical and mental requirements, but due to their requirements. For instance, the women presented in the case study, she was very much willing and committed to working as a firefighter and furthermore, she did her work very well till the government decided to introduce new requirements that needed hopefuls to pass various physical tests in order to hold various positions that are considered manly.

Research essay Competing Value Framework Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Essay Competing Value Framework - Research Paper Example It also helps in improvement of the profit margin and revenue of the organization as compared to other rivals in the market. Other than this, the framework of CVF is also often thought to be as a leadership tool utilized to improve the sales and revenue of the organization. Moreover the CVF might also be used for varied aspects and levels in organizations for their betterment and improvement. Apart from this, the CVF also serves as a map, an organizing mechanism, a sense-making device, a source of new ideas and a learning system to make the organization more and more effective in long run. This research paper mainly describes the meaning and developments of competing value framework (CVF) and the organizational focus with the help of two axis’s long with its benefits for the organization Definition of competing value framework Competing Values is all about accepting and analyzing the ways to appreciate the conflicting values in order to integrate them successfully for the bett erment of the organization. This might help the organization to improve its total sale as well as brand image in the market among others in the market. Along with this, it might also help an organization to analyze the strength and weakness so as to make use of it for its improvement and reduce its discrepancies. The Competing Values Framework (CVF) was developed for the benefit of the organization by analyzing the organizational culture, organizational effectiveness, organizational design, information processing, organizational quality, leadership competencies, stages of life cycle development, leadership roles, financial strategy and brain functioning. Therefore after examining all these above mentioned factors, the effectives of the organization may be improved as compared to others (Smart & Hamm, 1993). Other than this, if the organizational profit margin is increased then the level of reliability and trust of the customers over the brand might also increase resulting in amplifi cation of its total customers range. Due to all these advantages, it is considered to be one of the best models to improve the organizational portfolio in the market among others. Consequently it also helps to identify the set of guidelines that might facilitate the managers or leaders to diagnose, congruencies, manage the interrelationships and contradictions among the different aspects of associations to improve the organizations’ performance and market value in the market. So, it is highly appreciated (Quinn & Cameron, 1999). Development of competing value framework The Competing Values Framework came into existence from a series of theoretical framework and empirical studies and research conducted on the idea of organizational efficiency (Quinn & Rohrbaugh, 1983). All these efforts are performed with an attempt to improve the essence of organizational effectiveness in the market (Quinn and Rohrbaugh, 1983). Apart from this, the faculties of University of Michigan also und ertook varied types of organizational aspects into consideration so as to improve the fame in the market among other rivals. It consists of two dimensions among which the first one is related to organizational focus on the internal emphasis of the employees of the organization along with the external factors as well. The second dimension represents the contrast

Critical Analysis of Teaching Skills in Practice Essay

Critical Analysis of Teaching Skills in Practice - Essay Example In line with this, this paper will seek to discuss the factors that promote the development of a high-quality learning environment in the clinical setting, analyze my thoughts and feelings related to this teaching session, evaluate own skills in facilitating others to learn, and incorporate theoretical and empirical literatures in my teaching. Factors Promoting High-Quality Learning Environment The clinical setting is the most important learning environment for undergraduate nursing students and as a clinical teacher, it is important to identify the different factors that promote a high quality learning environment and the different strategies towards effective teaching. Elliott (2002, p. 34) identified time spent in the clinical area, stress, quality of experience, guidance, environmental norms, and institutional support as the factors that may promote or impede the development of a high-quality learning. The quantity of time spent in the clinical setting is an important indicator o f learning direction (Elliott 2002, p. 34). The more time a student spent in the clinical setting, the greater is the amount and quality of learning a student could gain. For instance, I have taught two groups of nursing students in the clinical setting on two different shifts – one group is in 4-hour shift and the other group received 8 hours of clinical training. With these two groups, I have noticed a great improvement in clinical performance among groups who fall under the 8-hour shift. In addition, the time spent in the clinical setting also affects the quality of experience received in the clinical area such as what was observed on the 8-hour shift group. Stress in the environment is another factor that may enhance or impede the quality of learning due to presence of pervading anxiety, feelings of abandonment, incompetent perception of self, encountering reality shock, doubting nursing as a choice of career, and uplifting consequences (Elliott 2002, p. 35). One of my nu rsing students verbalized that aside from reality-shock, they also felt stress towards inability to verbalize their feelings, multi-tasking of psychomotor, affective, and cognitive skills to respond to individual needs, fear of committing errors and pressure on achieving perfect behavior in the clinical setting, and criticisms from other staff members. It is indeed that stress may promote or stimulate learning but it should be in moderate degree; stress beyond this point may impede the quality of learning (Elliot 2002, p. 35). Another factor that may promote high-quality learning environment is the amount of preceptorship or guidance received from clinical teachers or superiors. Preceptorship fosters development of nursing and facilitates effective learning by working on androgogical premise of one-to-one relationship (Elliott 2002, p. 36). Most of my students stated that they feel confident doing nursing care because of one-to-one interaction or teaching that I spent on them. Envir onmental norms are also factors that may promote or impede achievement of high-quality learning. This is because the clinical setting pressured every nursing student to achieve perfection. There is no room for errors as this may affect not only the students but the clinical teacher, hospital staff, and the institution as well. As a result, students may feel incompetent and unconfident. To promote high-qual

Finance assignment question Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Finance question - Assignment Example This paper will take into account depository institutions whose main purpose is to provide financial services such as loans and deposits. Some of the constituents of depository institution are commercial banks, building societies, mortgage loans and credit unions, which all fall under one mainstream of financial institution. The depository institution came into existence when people felt there was need for security for their money. People faced the risks of loss of money through theft or accidents’ while keeping their money in their wallets or at home. Thus formed the initial goal of financial institution, which was only to offer the safekeeping of their clients’ money. Currently depository institution such as commercial banks, takes deposits from clients, offer security and convenience of service to their customers. Clients can now transact with the use of checks or wire transfers at their convenience courtesy of the commercial banks. Clients to banks also have a chanc e to earn money from their deposits that is they can let their money work for them. The depository institution, also provide loans to business, individuals and organizations to allow them to expand as this will only provide more income to the institutions once they bring back their income and profits (Valentine 2010). Nevertheless, the main difference between the depository institution and other financial institutions is the ability of the depository institution to offer cash deposits to its customers. The institutions achieve this through facilities such as savings account, fixed account and current accounts, Australia, & PricewaterhouseCoopers (2001). Financial institutions arises out of the needs and demands of the customers, therefore the main function of this institution is to be intermediaries of financial markets. That is they are responsible for the movement of funds from one market to another for example, from investors to organizations or individuals to individuals. Thus, these financial institutions form the backbone of every economy, as they are responsible for the movement and flow of money in the economy. However, this is only the function of financial institution. In relation to the depository institution, it also shares some of the general function, but its main function is to provide the facility of cash deposits to their clients, thus, enabling them to meet their financial obligations at their convenience. These depository banks also provide security to the clients’ investment, from cash to assets, as customers can easily transact without the obligation of carrying large sums of money as financial institution takes charge of such matters. In addition, they also keep records of account of their clients as they enable them to keep track of their finances (Pearson 2009). Another function of depository institutions is to pool the deposits and saving of many small depositors and converts them into a large pool of money that provides loans t o its trustworthy customers. This function also serves and answers the question of the sources of funds of these institutions. Through this mechanism the bank, makes money that they use in the daily running of their business. Subsequently the bank lends money to its customers at a higher rate ensuring

Crime Prevention and Private Policing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Crime Prevention and Private Policing - Essay Example This therefore means that private police are to create any preventive means so as not to distract the legitimate flow of the business, which in most cases the distraction of the flow will be due to the presence of crime. In the presence of more focus private police on protecting assets and property, there is a guarantee to establish a normal flow or condition of the business. Furthermore, with the inclusion of private policing in a private organization, the implementation of justice within this bound is straightforward such as firing an anomalous employee who committed crime against the prevailing policies or established law of the company. However, private policing creates an image for the criminal justice system as for-profit venture. Furthermore, as a nongovernmental action, it is not bound by the same legal requirements as public policing. These concerns are discussed in this paper. Introduction Traditional policing has long been a controversy regarding its ability to decrease th e level of crime rate. It is for this reason that adding more number of police on duty has become a significant decision as it is integrated with the idea that doing so will help reduce the crime rate. However, as far as the underlying truth about it is concerned, there are many research studies that try to investigate whether adding more police officers on duty will help alleviate or discourage the presence of crime. The available literature revealed that there is no significant evidence to support the assumption or claim that if there is addition of number of police personnel on duty, crime rate will decrease (Worrall, 2008). However, even if there is no associated truth behind the above traditional claim regarding policing, people are still able to rely on private policing to ensure safety, protection and to ward off any incident linked to the formulation of crime (Plant & Scott, 2009). This for instance is common to happen in private companies trying to maximize its level of con trol for the safety of their operations. It is for this reason that the work at hand tries to investigate the relevant advantages and disadvantages of private policing. Advantages of Private Policing One significant advantage of private policing is the inclusion of the level of focus that private police place in their actual responsibility. The level of focus is important because it may signify the intensity of control that private police may employ in the actual control or prevention of the crime. It is therefore highly observed that private policing personnel focus on loss control and prevention at a great level (Worrall, 2008; Byrne & Marx, 2011). They have no other concern but to focus on asset and property protection. For this reason, there are many private establishments that try to employ private policing for this concern as it is highly advantageous on their part considering the point that the level of focus placed in control and prevention of crime is involved. This promote s the idea that as far as mass private property is concerned, private sector for policing may well performed compared to the public sector in policing based on the level of focus they can give in actual prevention and control.  

Entrepreneurship Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Entrepreneurship - Research Paper Example Social entrepreneurs do not leave everything up to the government; rather they try themselves to handle the problems in the most efficient manner. Social entrepreneurs not only solve social problems but also navigate social barriers to the communities (Light 123). They offer a wide range of ideas to the people living in any particular society in order to manage their social problems. â€Å"Social Entrepreneurs Identify and Solve Problems on a Large Scale† (Coggins). Social entrepreneurs commit themselves to change the direction of the society and want to implement their vision practically for the betterment of the society. â€Å"Social entrepreneurs seek to attain long-term social effects† (Cuizon). Some of the core activities of a social entrepreneur include creating and sustaining social values, helping the individuals find solution to their problems, continuously pursuing learning and innovation, and taking bold steps to tackle major social issues even with limited r esources. Social entrepreneurs can be defined by two elements, which include strategic focus on social impact and an innovative approach towards the mission (Nicholls). Tackling with the issue of teenage pregnancies is a real example of social entrepreneurship. It is because teenage pregnancies is a critical social issue these days which needs to be handled by the people living in any particular society instead of relying on the government to take considerable steps. Teenage pregnancies bring a number of negative consequences for the whole society in the form of low interest in marriages, poor health of newborn children, and less educated mothers. The common elements of social entrepreneurship reflected in the example of teenage pregnancies include advancing the social mission to provide safe sex education to the children, applying innovative process towards the mission, and taking considerable measures for advancing the social

The Story of an Hour by Kate Chopin Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Story of an Hour by Kate Chopin - Essay Example The same is the case with the marital-knot that also implements restrictions on spouses by determining their rights and obligations towards one another. Though apparently the individuals feel rejoice on entering into matrimonial relationship, by taking it as the sign and symbol of complement, harmonizing and completeness; yet unconsciously they look for revolting against the limitations had been imposed upon them in the name of love and marriage. The same is the case with Louise, the protagonist of the story under analysis by Chopin. Being the torch-bearer of feminist rights, renowned fiction-writer Kate Chopin has pointed out towards the drawbacks and constraints the woman folk has to undergo in the sacred name of home and marriage. Apparently, women are bestowed upon with financial support, protection, comforts and sexual gratification, after getting married, according to the prevailing socio-religious norms, yet in reality, they are confined within the boundaries described and det ermined by their husbands for the exercising of their talent, abilities and activities at large. There is no doubt in the very fact that they have developed emotional and sentimental bonds with their husbands, yet quite unconsciously they feel the suppression of their freedom inflicted by the males upon them. The same is the theme of the story, where the protagonist Mrs. Louise Mallard, the young lady as well as patient of depression and heart disease, bursts into tears as soon as her sister Josephine and her husband’s friend Richards mildly and indirectly break the news of her husband’s death in rail-road accident. She falls in Josephine’s arms, which throw light on her fear of being unprotected after the death of her sheltering tree i.e. Brently Mallard. (788). Hence, the author has supported the very idea that the male members of family (including fathers, husbands and brothers) are source of security, and an unseen sense of protection is attributed to them i n respect of their women. Even Louise is aggrieved on hearing the news about her husband’s death, yet she seeks sigh of relief while she is alone in her room. She opens windows and enjoys with the natural and social panorama outside the window pane. It looks that unbolting of window has wide opened new horizons of merriment, opportunities, successes and tranquility for her. (789). Even the street hawker’s voice appears to be pleasant and enjoyable to her. Chirping of birds, blowing breeze, swaying leaves and freely moving humans and other living creatures—all communicate one and the same message of liberty and independence to Louise. Thus, her sub-conscious pricks her mind that the marital-knot had tied her with the strings that were dependent of her husband for the slightest movement even. It is therefore, the depressing and painful death news gives her the message of release from the marriage prison. Louise is so absorbed in the imagination of liberty, which s he fantasizes in its full swing that she does not allow any external interference that could put her imagination in jeopardy even for the time being. It is therefore she turns the deaf ear to the Josephine’s appeals she makes to her for unlocking the door of her room. (790). By this she simply means the break the ray of sorrow Louise has been experiencing. However, it is not the case altogether, as Louise appears to be longing for a tranquil life for the future days to come. It is therefore on finding Brently alive, she cannot resist the

Performance Assessment Test Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Performance Assessment Test - Essay Example Having determined the score of each student, using the rubrics the teacher is then able to evaluate the students’ performances and determine whether they have understood and mastered the basics of the unit. Rubrics are an important part of the assessment since they provide teachers with the criteria to use in evaluating the student's performance. Through rubrics, students are also able to benefit since they know what is expected of them (Lund & Kirk, 2010). They are also able to see how instructions fit with the set goals. Reliability and validity can evaluate from two different points of view. The teacher's content given to the students must be excellent both quantitatively and qualitatively (Riggs, Verdi & Arlin, 2009). This is mainly because, when the features are present, then it can be concluded as being both reliable and valid. Validity is usually evidenced when the students are able to apply the ideas taught by the teacher without difficulty. Students should be able to come up with ideas close to or exactly like those of their teachers after their own private research. Validity can also be demonstrated by the achievement of the set goals. Where there is a very big difference between the students' performance and the previously set goals. Reliability, on the other hand, is mainly evaluated on the basis of the usefulness of the teacher's content in the assessments. When the teacher gives details that are out of context then he or she is deemed to be unreliable. On the other hand, will be judged as invalid.... This will normally depend on the goals set at the beginning of the learning period. The teacher should use the objectives to determine the standards of the assessment. The standards will mainly be based on how challenging the exam is. b) Setting of the test and determination of the date The teacher should then go ahead and set the questions of the assessment depending on the content taught. To avoid leakage or copying of the test or any other such irregularities, it is preferred that the teacher does not inform the students of the test. This also assists in ensuring that the teacher does not obtain inaccurate results. The teacher should also set the date on which to administer the test in advance. This is mainly to avoid any delays or interferences with the normal program. c) Administration of the test Once all arrangements are made, the test is then given to the students on the set date. Generally, study shows that it is better when the test is short and clear with no long instructi ons. Students should be able to finish all the questions within the stipulated time; holding all other factors constant. d) Marking of the scripts and determination of the score Since it is a performance assessment and not a summative one, the score of the test is to be determined immediately after the test. The method mostly used is the exchange of scripts, where the students mark each other’s scripts whilst the teacher gives the answers. Having determined the score of each student, using the rubrics the teacher is then able to evaluate the students’ performances and determine whether they have understood and mastered the basics of the unit. 3) Rubric Rubrics are an important part of the assessment since they provide teachers with the criteria to use in evaluating the

Personal Statement Essay Example for Free

Personal Statement Essay My academic background, which has been both varied and informed by different academic settings, has seen my succeeding as a student in South Korea, Guam, and Seattle. Because of the nature of my father’s job, I have had the rare opportunity to study and to learn in a variety of different educational settings with a variety of different intellectual approaches and cultural influences. My family and I arrived in Seattle from Guam in 2003; the family’s collective goal was to relocate in order to find better educational opportunities for my younger brother and myself. Though I had taken piano lessons for many years, I decided to pursue piano as a hobby while I devoted more attention to working part-time in order to finance my studies. As a student in Seattle, I soon learned that music and psychology were my passions and my music professor truly seemed to respect my musical ability and constantly encouraged me to pursue my musical interests. Taking my professor’s advice, two years ago on Christmas Eve, a Korean woman’s association had a party to raise money for a charity organization. Needing some form of entertainment, they invited me to perform a piece of music on stage during dinnertime. I played Schubert’s impromptu op 90. Eb major. I was nervous but on the other hand I felt delighted and hoped it wouldn’t be the last performing in public and for a worthy charitable cause. Music, in sum, allows me to blend my personal passions with my academic talents in a manner that can be used to benefit society. In terms of my career goals, and my specific interest in the University of Washington, the fact is that Id like to transfer to this university because I want to learn from experts with more experience and to share my interests with peers with similar goals and aspirations. My greatest dream, is to comfort peoples’ hearts as a Music Therapist. I genuinely enjoy sharing what I have learned with everyone and I am most delighted when I sing with people while playing piano. I enjoy getting to know peoples’ minds and emotions because I have empathy and this influences my musical styles and performances. Personally, for example, I have played synthesizer in church bands throughout Korea, Guam and Seattle, and gave my time to serve as a music tutor to many students. If I’m admitted into this school, Id like to be attend in schools choir and jazz club. Sharing, both personally and academically, is the greatest way to learn and the greatest way to give back to the community/ Culture, in my view, is a manifestation of diversity. That excellence cannot be attained without diversity it seems, in the modern world, to be a rather intuitive deduction. Such a deduction is perfectly consistent with the underlying nature of any intellectually honest type of inquiry. A thesis must be formulated, tested against all of the available data, and conclusions drawn. Diversity contributes, indeed it is a necessary ingredient, for any type of rigorous analysis. Social truths cannot exist in a vacuum; truths must be tested in the real world and with real people rather than with imaginary prototypes that do not reflect the true diversity of opinion and contrary world views that reflect both our own society and the world at large. What might seem a perfectly plausible theory to one individual might seem extraordinarily unjust to another individual; a traditional approach that seems to one individual to bring the greatest good to society to another individual might threaten to socially ostracize minority opinions; and, finally, ethnocentric views inhibit academic inquiry whereas culturally diverse pools of learners break down biases and contribute to more meaningful discussions and theoretical paradigms. In the final analysis, the University of Washington is an ideal setting in which to study and shares ideas that have profound social implications As a young person already immersed in an increasingly multicultural community and world, I am especially interested in the emphasis given to multicultural approaches at the University of Washington. Such an approach, respecting and encouraging both personal development and academic development through the embrace of different cultural values and perspectives, lends itself exceptionally well to my own goals and aspirations. One of the causes of so much conflict in the world today can be attributed to a lack of effective communication that results in unnecessary misunderstandings and confusion. In reality, in my experience, people around the world have so many positive characteristics and dreams in common. People throughout the world desire peaceful environments in which to live; people desire to pursue harmonious relationships with family members and neighbors; and, most of all, people desire to avoid conflicts that are damaging in so many ways.

A City On Civilizations

A City On Civilizations The purpose of this integration paper is to determine the impact of a city on civilizations. Cities have also been a changing factor during the course of time, and have improved the way we live today. When we compare the different types of cities, we can then determine the similarities and differences in various places and eras. Why are cities an essential part of civilization? Has urban life been the same in different civilizations over time? Why or why not? What accounts for the similarities and differences in various places and eras? To write a successful essay on these questions, you need to integrate material from each of the following chapters in our textbook: Chapters 3, 6, and 11. http://www.ancientcivilizations.co.uk/home_set.html Cities assumed the control and integration functions of the new political, economic, religious, and social systems. All cultural forms eventually became hierarchically organized. Class and caste societies based on political and religious status became the norm, replacing the older ranked societies of farming villages. Urbanization changed the way humans lived by going from a self sufficient village, to having jobs and becoming more industrialized. People started to leave villages and farms to live in cities.  Ã‚  A cause of this might have been the younger generation not having as much experience to start agriculture on their own, so they would rather obtain jobs in a more urbanized culture to gain the experience and then hopefully be able to maintain their own farm. The negative impacts that would arise from urbanization are increased costs over what the local working class receives in wages.  Ã‚  Laws were developed on how farms should be maintained, which in some instances would bankrupt farmers, because of high maintenance costs to abide by regulations.  Ã‚  This would cause people to have no choice but to end up as workers to support their household, meaning they might be required to move closer to the city to be near jobs, which would also add to the higher living expenses related to urbanization. When we think of urbanization, we can also relate it to archaeological traces of classical Athens and Rome, which did reveal some differences between what constitutes a city-state and an imperial capital city.   Reilly explains, big choices such as laws, decisions of war and peace, determination of how much money to collect and what to spend it on were determined by the mass assembly, which consisted of all citizens.   The town council was the one who prepared most of the issues, but the final judge was the assembly.   This seems to be the origin of politics, and development of a democratic society. Rome on the other hand was the opposite; it was considered a show place for power, according to Reilly.   The Greeks were more focused on attention to the quality of harbors and the fertility of the soil and occupied themselves with beauty and fortification, while the Romans concentrated on providing their cities with adequate water, streets, and sewers.   Most of these amenities were mainly for the rich though; everyone else had to figure out their own means of obtaining water, and utilizing sewage, which was mainly just tossing it out the window. Artwork and pictures also plays a role in the identity of a city, for example, pictures from classical Athens consisted of sculptors that were produced from ideal views, whereas the goal of Roman artifacts and pictures was to produce realistic portraits for decoration and symbolisms of power.   I found the pictures in the text book and the photos of ancient Athens in the lectures very telling.   The picture of Rome (Reilly p.142-143) shows a congested city and magnificent buildings.   Many of the buildings were built for entertainment purposes and could hold most of the people of Rome.   The buildings and entertainment were enough to blind you from the poorly built and cramped housing.   The photos in the lecture of ancient Athens and the Agora (www.stoa.org/athens) showed the importance placed on having a gathering place for all of societys functions.   Buying and selling commodities, and discussing politics, business and current events. The enduring architecture, engineering, and writings from the classical period of both civilizations work to reveal drastic differences in the political, social, and economic aspects of life between the cultures.   One is provided with insight into how the different peoples viewed different matters in varying respects. The enduring architecture of the great city-state of Athens is the primary indication of the participatory nature of the Greek city-state itself.   The remains of the acropolis, the agora, and the amphitheater are signs of a culture whose goal was the enrichment of human life, [which was made possible] by the polis (Reilly, 1997, p. 133).   The acropolis, which was the home of the Greek gods provided for religious relief; the agora served as the primary meeting place and market place of the people; and the amphitheater was the principal form of entertainment for Athenians.   Each form of architecture simply emphasizes the importance of citizen participation in every aspect of political, social, and economic Athenian life.   The engineering systems, water aqueducts, and the remnants of the Coliseum of the Roman imperial capital city are the primary indications of the non-participatory nature of the imperial capital city.   The luxury of the baths, palaces, and efficient sewage systems that were offered to the ruling classes were a far cry from the dirty, crowded, and disease-rampant tenements that characterized the lives of the Roman poor.   Moreover, the emphasis on gladiatorial violence, which took part in the Coliseum and the Circus Maximus, revealed that when a citys inhabitants no longer have any control over the life of the city, they must be entertained (Reilly, 1997, p. 144).   Clearly, Roman citizens had no participation in the running of the city, and thus, were kept entertained through violent games. There is definitely a difference between the city-state of Athens and the imperial capital city of Rome.   Ancient Athens was viewed as a democracy, where power was distributed to a larger population of the city.   Kevin Reilly states, In terms of technology, comforts, physical layout, and the lives of the inhabitants, Athens was not very far removed from the peasant village (Reilly p.130).   They led simple lives and had ample leisure time.   The Athenian amphitheatre was where hundreds of plays were watched, and even participated in, by members of the audience.   The Greek tragedies displayed human foibles, political policy and the eternal dramas of human life on stage for all to see (Reilly p.131).   The city-state made possible a relatively peaceful and fulfilling way of life.   The democratic nature of the polis was a key aspect of leading this good life. Although we may underestimate the houses of ancient Athens, they were built similar to each other and provided a decent living.   R.E. Wycherley states, Classical Greek houses were unpretentious, at least from the outside; they were hardly expected to make much contribution to the architectural beauty of the city (How the Greeks Built Cities, R.E. Wycherley 1949).   In contrast, ancient Rome put their efforts into elaborate Coliseums and amphitheatres and made no attempt to build decent housing for the less fortunate. Ancient Rome was the opposite of life in ancient Athens.   Rome was built with the intention only the wealthy would have a comfortable living.   The great sewer system did not extend to the houses of the poor, thus they were left to live with the stench of excrement.   The housing was cramped and congested which led to epidemic infestation and spontaneous combustion.   Romans were not offered participation in community affairs.   There was also a large separation between rich and poor.   Reilly contends, Class divisions between rich and poor, powerful and weak, were radically accelerated in the capital city, especially Rome (Reilly p.141).   The city had many diversions to ease the reality of life.   Romans would watch extravagant circuss (Circus Maximus) or head to the Coliseum for brutal gladiatorial exhibitions.   Romans were blood thirsty and hungry for entertainment.   This entertainment was the only way for most citizens to forget about their daily lives and the horrible living conditions.   Although the city had many engineering and technological marvels for this period, it was designed for the rich and powerful to enjoy. The main differences I have noticed between a city-state and an imperial capital city is how it is socially governed.   A city-state is controlled by the citizens, where decisions and laws are voted on by a mass assembly.   An imperial capital city, such as Rome, is controlled by an emperor or dictator, where the only decision made was by him; even though the emperor had a senate, they were only in place to advise the emperor. Kevin Reilly and the photographic archives both worked to reveal the key difference between the city-state and the imperial capital city of the classical world.   While the city-states were citizen-based and democratic, the imperial capital cities were more entertaining and economically focused. Overall the social changes that were taking place were not all negative, most societies benefited from urbanization, as far as profits that were being made.  Ã‚  It also leads to a more modernized way of living due to urban growth, and improved opportunities for jobs, housing, and transportation.

Anti-Corrosion in Marine Surface Engineering

Anti-Corrosion in Marine Surface Engineering Surface Engineering: Coatings and Thin Films Technologies INTRODUCTION Surface building alludes to an extensive variety of advancements that plan to outline and change the surface properties of parts. There are two fundamental classes of surface designing techniques that can be utilized to advance the surface properties and the mass materials. These are surface coatings and surface Modifications. Other process include Surface shape design. Surface covering forms include protecting a layer of liquid, semi-liquid or substance material onto a substrate. One of the fundamental elements of surface covering is to change and fortify the surface capacities as opposed to improving the arrangement of the mass material. A few cases of surface covering forms incorporate Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD), Concoction Vapour Deposition (CVD), plasma and warm splashing, sol-gel, cladding and electroplating. Surface modifications procedures can be named solidifying by fire, acceptance, laser or electron bar, high vitality medications, e.g. particle implantation; and dispersion medicines, e.g. carburizing and Nitriding. Surface adjustment procedures are relevant to control rubbing, enhance surface wear and consumption resistance, and change the physical or mechanical properties of the part. Surface alteration medications additionally can be consolidated with surface covering forms, for example laser cladding. This blend improves the bene fits of surface coatings and surface adjustment, consequently accomplishing particular prerequisites and wellness for reason. Surface medicines that cause microstructure changes in the bulk material incorporate warming and cooling/extinguishing through acceptance, fire, laser, and electron bar strategies, or mechanical medications (one illustration is icy working). Surface medicines that modify the science of a surface incorporate carburizing, Nitriding, Carbo-Nitriding, Nitro carburizing, boriding, siliconizing, chromizing and aluminizing Hard facing is another type of surface treatment, where the mass material surface is given a defensive layer of another material having more predominant properties than those of the mass material. An example of this is covering a turbine pump seal joint with a destructive resistive material, to keep salty water from disintegrating the pump. Each strategy for hard confronting, cases of which are covering affidavit, cladding or welding, causes specific physical and concoction impacts on the mass material, some advantageous, some adverse. For instance focuses on which may exist in the defensive material can make issues, however watchful checking and research may restrain these impacts, to ideally create quality, serviceable building parts. The accompanying areas will portray the idea of surface building and the impacts designing situations have on these surfaces. Hard confronting procedures are portrayed in details particularly as to covering statement advances, with specific accentuati on on warm splash strategies, including the HVOF (High Velocity Oxy-Fuel) prepare that utilized as a part of the ebb and flow inquire about. 1.1 Surface Engineering At the point when two surfaces come into contact and relative movement is created, the contact stresses increased because of the generally little rate of load-supporting region. This will result in grating and wear, and potentially even prompt to disappointment. In the high anxiety utilizations of a present day motor or gearbox, there are zones where the weight of metal moving against metal powers away all the greasing up oil and permits warmth to develop. In the instance of extraordinary weight and contact, this warmth is sufficient to momentarily weld the two sections together just before they are broken separated by their development. This consistent weld and break handle which can happen at the nuclear scale bring about drag and wear, which are damaging. On the off chances that the riggings are the parts of a shuttle, and if the single part comes up short, the whole multi-million dollar shuttle would fizzle. So designed surfaces to battle grating and diminish wear is exceedingly alluring. Many materials have been developed to have specific bulk properties, although they have not been particularly optimized for the surface properties. Surface engineering can solve these problems by: Implanting alloying atoms to different depths, thereby improving toughness and fatigue properties; (surface modification) Depositing surface layers, thick or thin, including lubricants; (surface coating) Redesigning the surface shape of the component to distribute stresses. 1.2 Friction, Corrosion, wear Surface engineering techniques solve friction, corrosion, and wear problems. Friction, corrosion and wear are the most common factors that cause engineering failures. In industrialized countries, 7% of GNP represents the cost of friction, wear and corrosion, with the possibility of 1% of this figure being reduced through the use of efficient tribological systems. On a worldwide level, 34% of all lubricants produced are consumed in Europe, with 50% of this being recycled, with a further 2.5 million tonnes being lost in the environment. Corrosion is mainly an electrochemical phenomenon which occurs when metals react with materials in their environment. 1.3 Basic types of Corrosion and wear Fig. 1: Type of corrosion and wear Wear is the dynamic loss of material from a surface. Among the distinctive sorts of wear, rough wear and glue wear ordinarily happen more frequently than others. Grating wear is because of hard particles or hard bulges constrained against and moving along a strong surface. Cement wear is created by restricted holding between reaching strong surfaces prompting to material exchange between the two surfaces or the misfortune from either surface. Cement wear is a run of the mill case of how a delicate material can wear out a harder on. 1.4 Surface Engineering in Marine applications Methods of corrosion protection are based on the theory of corrosion processes. Alterations of the material properties and external environmental characteristics are the factors which can affect the slowing down or stopping of the corrosion process. Corrosion protection in the shipbuilding industry is an important technological process devised to protect the ship from corrosion effects. Even the storage area of plates, profiles and flats in a shipyard exposed to severe environmental conditions. Protection Coating in shipbuilding constitutes of following steps: Preparation of surface Temporary protection workshop Terms of coating Methods of Applying coating 1.5 Preparation of Surface Surface arrangement is a requesting innovative operation in the advancement of the ships body from essential surface readiness of plates, profiles, and pads performed in the programmed establishment .It likewise incorporates a fundamental workshop technique called covering. Shop groundwork in the film thickness 15-25 ÃŽÂ ¼m is utilized for the assurance of steel during the time spent ship development. In any case, compulsory control of the thickness of the coatings for more prominent thickness may unfavourably influence the cutting pace and nature of steel, and in addition the event of mistakes in welding. Optional surface planning is done in the corridors for sand impacting and painting, whereby soil and salt ought to be expelled from the surface of the area, rendering it and sandblasting as per standard ISO 8501-1. This innovative operation infers additional work in welding and crushing and speaks to the pre-gathering attachments. 1.5.1 Temporary protection of surface The principal phase of consumption assurance in the shipbuilding business comprises of the workshop covering (shop groundwork) on the plating profile and pads in a thin film, about of 15 to 25ÃŽÂ ¼m thick, as intemperate film thickness may adversely influence the nature of welding (the event of porosity) and cutting steel. Shop preliminary speaks to quick drying coatings which are utilized for transitory security of steel in the workshop amid ship development and utilization of the last covering framework. Transitory erosion security is performed in the workshop of preparing in mechanized plant beginning from drying sheets, shot impacting and covering as indicated by the ISO standard. Workshop coatings utilized are zinc silicate and epoxy press oxide shop preliminary. Epoxy press oxide is connected to acquire a more prominent thickness, requesting more paint, thusly bringing about higher coats and expanded misfortunes. Today in many shipyards zinc silicate is utilized as shop preliminary (with a share of 25-35 % zinc), which gives a superior quality welding and lessened event of undesirable zinc salts (a compound barely solvent in water and hard to clean from the surface) Shop preliminary must meet the accompanying prerequisites: It should be appropriate for mechanized re-coloring methodology, It have the most limited drying time (3 to 5 minutes), Imperviousness to high temperatures, It shouldnt discharge dangerous gasses amid welding and cutting, It shouldnt adversely influence the welding procedure It should not influence the mechanical properties of welded joints. 1.5.2 Terms of coating Surface readiness principles incorporate a few criteria, tenets and rules for the way toward get ready body metal surfaces. Surface states of steel structures are isolated into four phases: Steel surfaces secured with plant scale and little erosion, Steel surfaces, which have started to erode and from which process scale has begun to peel Steel surface displaying particles of rust or inadequately connected worrying factory scale with the main noticeable sings of setting, Steel surface that is unmistakably consumed and influenced by setting. The way towards planning metal surfaces done by different methods for abrasives. Abrasives are distinctive sorts of materials appropriate for the specific coarseness surface readiness, where the grating particles utilizing packed air are connected to the surface which is to be cleaned. 1.5.3 Method of Applying Coating The innovative procedure of erosion security utilizes diverse techniques for applying coatings by brush, roller or showering (air or airless), where the determination of the methodology influences the speed and nature of works. Paint brush is normally utilized for the methodology touch-up in the insurance of zones, for example, joints, moves, edges, welds and other unpleasant surfaces and setting. In these regions, color entrance is accomplished by applying the correct brushes: it cannot be accomplished by whatever other technique. Paint roller is seldom utilized in light of its deformities, arrangement of little uneven layers, more often than not with little crevices and openings. Applying a covering by splashing depends on scattering the paint as small beads that settle on the working parts. Airless splashing is a strategy that is most basic in the shipbuilding business since it empowers quick use of Paint onto extensive surface, high effect, the likelihood of applying thicker layer, and Great infiltration. ARC SPRAYING PROCESS Thermal spraying method is a process of coating in which a heated material is sprayed on its surface. This type of spraying can provide thick coatings over a large area at high deposition rate. Thermal spraying is classified into Plasma, Wire arc, Flame, Detonation, Warm and cold spraying. 2.1 Overview of Arc spraying process In electric arc spray process, two wires of desired materials act as electrodes are fed to spray gun at controlled feed rate. Compressed gas is also used to atomize and propel the material to the substrate. Fig.2: Schematic diagram of Wire arc spray device In this process, the anode and cathode wires are continuously melted and broken down into tiny droplets which are injected by air jets through a nozzle. The velocity of gas is a few hundreds of m/s but the gas is not heated, allowing operator to keep the substrate temperature below a few 0C without cooling. The arc powers generally range from 2 to 10 KW, airflow ranges from 0.8 to3 m3/min. The temperature of the arc can be as high as 20,000 k. DC generators are used a source for power. Before the arc process is performed, substrate surface is properly cleaned. For this purpose usually the surface is blasted using a compressed air abrasive blasting. This is effective for cleaning mill scaled on steel surface by using abrasive particle at high velocity and also for good adhesion of arc spray process. Along with this the substrate surface roughness is also important consideration to be made for proper coating bonding. To hinder rust formation and provide good bonding the coarse surface profile must be around 110 microns. Garnet is normally used abrasive as it can provide desired surface finish and roughness. As metallic abrasive usually result in energy being given off as a spark which might cause surface defect non -metallic abrasives are used. Fig.3: Arc spray process instrument Before the coating is applied on the substrate surface some conditions need to be satisfied, they are Surface finish must be greater than SA 2.5 as it can be visually inspected Surface roughness must range between 75 microns to 110 microns Permissible level for salt contamination of surface should not exceed 20 mg/m3 Dust level should not exceed the rating 1 2.2 Characteristics of Arc spray process Wire diameter: The wire diameter ranges from 1.6mm to 3.16mm. The deposition rate of coating on the surface depends on the wire diameter. Wire feed rate: This determines the rate at which the material must be introduced to the system, which is proportional to the rate at which the material introduced melts. Coating materials: Metals, cements, ceramics, polymers, carbides are some of the materials used for arc spray process. Solid wires produced from Chromium, zinc nickel based alloys or aluminum are generally used for arc spraying in marine application. Aluminum is considered to have the best performance for surface coating. Spray distance: The distance varies from 15cm to 25cm; the distance affects the deposition area of coating on the surface. Power requirement: Depending on the spraying material, voltage ranges from 16 V to 30 V. The applied voltage controls the input power to the arc which affects the rate at which the tips of the wires are heated and melted. The current is adjusted to 150 A for most of the applications. 2.3 APPLICATION OF ARC SPRAY PROCESS This process is mainly used for corrosion protection. Other than this, it is also applied for coatings of machineries like boiler tube, gear box, shafts and crankshafts in power plants. 2.4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES 2.4.1 Advantages Arc spraying process is economical when compared with other spraying techniques Any coating material can be used. Examples are ceramics, cement metals It has a high deposition rate of the thermal processes Operator requires less training The power requirement is also low Almost all substrate material can be coated Low porosity level can be achieved using this process Its useful as low heating of substrate makes arc spraying process useful in metalizing thermally sensitive substrate 2.4.2 Disadvantages Large amount of fume and dust is produced, which is a cause of concern for the operators health The materials used are limited to electrical conduction It can be sometimes seen that the coating quality does not meet to expectations as done with other technique 3. HOT DIP GALVANIZING 3.1 Overview of Hot Dip Galvanizing This process is used for coating iron an steel with a layer of Zinc by immersing the metal in molten zinc bath at a temperature of about 449 oC. This process forms a metallurgical bond between steel and molten Zinc and is done in a plant with controlled conditions. The bond formed has very good corrosion resistance due to the good molecular adhesion and the cathodic protection. The hot dip galvanization process mainly consists of 4 stages. Surface Preparation Removing oil/grease, dirt, paint etc. from the surface. Pickling in Acid To remove mill/scale. Flux Coating (Usually Zinc Ammonium Chloride) To prevent the oxidation of cleaned surface when exposed to air. Zinc Bath Dipping the material in Zinc bath and holding it until it reaches equilibrium with the bath temperature. Fig.4: Various steps in hot dip galvanizing method In HDG coating, the outermost layer (ETA) is a covering of pure zinc and is formed as the material is withdrawn from the molten Zinc bath. The underlying series of layers (of coating) are zinc-iron alloys and are formed as a result of metallurgical reaction between the molten zinc and the material being galvanized. In HDG process, the coating formed on the corners and edges of the material is generally thicker than the surrounding coating. The reason for this is that the zinc-iron alloys formed would grow perpendicular to the steel surface. The ETA layer is ductile and provides good impact resistance to the galvanized material. The combination of all the layers in the coating provides toughness to the material and also aids in resistance to mechanical damage in transport, erection and service of the components. Fig. 5: Typical cross section of a hot dip galvanized coating 3.2 Variable Parameters The appearance and the thickness of the galvanized coating are affected by several factors. Steel Composition: The galvanizing reaction produces thicker coatings for rough steel surfaces because of the increased surface area and also these coatings would have a poor appearance and would be a rough coating. Bath Immersion time: As galvanization is a diffusion process, the reaction between molten zinc and steel would be quick initially but slows down as the alloy layers grow and become thick. So, continuous immersion or dipping of the material more than once doesnt produce a significantly thicker coating. (Which happens in case of reactive steels) Speed of Withdrawal: The withdrawal rate of material from the galvanizing bath has a significant effect on the outermost layer of the pure zinc. Thickest coating would be formed when the withdrawal is rapid because this allows a large amount of zinc to be carried out on the material which would eventually solidify and become pure zinc layer. On contrary, smooth, thin and uniform coatings are formed with slower withdrawal rates as it allows the zinc to drain back into the kettle. Steel cooling Rate: The dull or matte gray coatings are usually due to slower cooling rates such as air cooling or quenching of thicker sections because the slow cooling would allow the zinc-iron alloying reaction to continue and the inner alloy layers would use the outer ETA layer for their zinc supply. The formation of dull/matte surfaces can be reduced by halting the galvanizing reaction by quickly reducing the temperature to less than 300oF. 3.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES 3.3.1 Advantages Lower first cost: This process generally has the lowest first cost compared to any other protective coatings for steel. The application cost of painting which is a labor intensive coating has risen far more than the cost of factory applied hot dip galvanizing. Lower maintenance / lower long term cost: In some cases, the initial cost of hot-dip galvanizing is higher than alternative coatings, but it is more cost effective due to its lower maintenance costs during long service life. Maintenance is costlier for structures in remote areas. Maintenance programs have an invariably negative impact on productivity. Long Life:In hot dip galvanized coatings, the life expectancy of structural members is 50 years more than in more rural environments and 10 to 30 years in most corrosive urban and coastal environments. Surface preparation:To ensure uniform cleaning of steel surfaces,they must be immersed in acid whereas organic coatings must be applied on abrasive blast cleaned surfaces and should be verified by third party inspection. Adhesion: This coating is metallurgical bonded to the steel surface. Environment friendly:The coating is non toxic and doesnt contain any volatile substances. Speed of coating application:A full coating can be applied in minutes whereas multi paint coating system takes up to a week. The application of hot dip galvanized coating is not influenced by weather conditions. Uniform protection:Hot dip galvanized surfaces are protected both internally and externally including recesses, sharp corners and inaccessible areas for application of other coating methods. The coating is at least as thick over sharp corners as on flat surfaces. No other coating applied can provide similar uniform protection. Sacrificial protection for damaged areas:A hot dip galvanized coating would preferentially corrode to steel providing cathodic protection to small areas of steel exposed to damage. Toughness:A hot dip galvanized coating has outstanding resistance to mechanical damage during transport, erection and service due to its unique metallurgical structure. Disadvantages This process can only be carried out in a galvanizing plant and on site application is not possible. The color of the zinc coating can only be changed by painting the coated surface. The size of the zinc bath is a limiting factor for the component or structure dimensions. There is probability of distortion/warp of large flat unsupported sheet components and long, slender beams due to the high molten zinc temperature. The welding of the zinc coated steel would need different procedures as compared to the uncoated steel. During welding of hot-dip galvanized steel, there is a loss of coating in the first and second heat affected zones, but a portion of the coating remains right up to the edge of the weld. COMPARISON OF ARC SPRAY PROCESS AND HOT DIP GALVANIZING FOR COATING OF SHIP HULL As studied in the sections before both Arc Spray Process and Hot Dip Galvanizing has their advantages and disadvantages. In this section we will compare both these process based on important characteristics and try to find out which one would be a better suitable process for coating of ship hulls. 4.1 Surface Preparation Hot Dip Galvanizing requires specific surface preparation consisting of Degreasing, Pickling and in Flux solution, not only these surface preparation method requires special setup, but processes such as Pickling can introduce Hydrogen in the substrate causing Hydrogen embrittlement and Hydrogen Induced Cracking, however if the substrate steel is not cleaned properly the zinc will not bond with it and it may be noticed at that stage only. Surface preparation for Arc Spray requires the surface to be little coarse which can be done by abrasive air blasting which depends on the operators experience, but if the cleaning is not done properly it may not be detected then. Thus surface preparation by Hot Dip Galvanizing is advantageous. 4.2. Coverage Arc spray process cannot be used for coating of corners, edges and complex shapes such as threads and hollow section, all of which can be coated easily by hot dip galvanizing as it is a dip process. Since ship hulls are large bulky object which doesnt have any such complex shape both processes can be used here but still Hot Dip Galvanizing will be more beneficial. 4.3. Process Time and Economy Hot Dip Galvanizing takes less time as it can coat almost all the surface area at one go when dipped inside the bath whereas Arc spray process is a line by line process and hence takes more time. The equipment cost for arc spray is lower, its setup is also easier than Hot Dip Galvanizing, and the equipment is mobile whereas the baths for Hot Dip Galvanizing is stationary but this method can cover large area at one go. Therefore for coating of ship hull, Hot Dip Galvanizing is a faster process as they have a very large surface area for which Arc Spray process will take more time and the higher cost of Hot Dip Galvanizing is negated by ability to cover larger surface area at one goes. 4.4. Effect on Substrate For Hot Dip Galvanizing the baths are maintained at a temperature of around 450ÂÂ °C which is just below the austenitizing temperature of steel and hence may cause a change in microstructure of the substrate if there are some variations whereas since no hot jet is directed on the substrate in the arc spray process there is no effect on the underlying substrate. Thus only considering this effect on substrate thermal arc spray process is a better process. 4.5. Coating Thickness The thickness of coating in electric arc spray coating can be regulated by regulating the speed of wire feed in the process, thus it can be easily controlled whereas in Hot Dip Galvanizing a certain thickness may not be specified as the thickness depends on the withdrawal speed which may cause an uneven distributed coating. 4.6. Bond Strength The bond strength for arc spray process for ferrous and non ferrous alloys is within the range of 4000-7000 psi whereas for Hot Dip Galvanizing the bond strength is around 3600 psi, thus arc spray process provides comparatively higher bond strength. 4.7. Hazard Fumes and other hazardous by products are formed during the Hot Dip Galvanizing can pose health hazard to the operators who are working in the shop floor as well as to the environment. Thermal Arc Spray process on the other hand produces metallic dust consisting of very fine particles and fumes; also electric arc spray process operates at high current which can result in shock hazards if not treated with caution. Clearly both processes are hazardous both to human as well as environment. 4.8 Conclusion for comparison Considering all the above factors Hot Dip Galvanizing seems to a better and efficient process for coating of ship hulls, not only coating ship hulls which have large surface area by arc spray a time consuming task it doesnt providing any other significant advantages as compared to Hot Dip Galvanizing. CONCLUSION In this report, we have mentioned the different possibilities for anti-corrosion in marine environment. Here we have taken the two commonly used methods for the protection of ship hull from corrosion. As the instrument for arc spray process is quite cheaper compared to the other techniques, its widely used in marine industry. The coating adherence is good with no heating of the substrate generally; however coating done by this method is porous. The hot -dip galvanizing process is an effective way for resisting corrosion. It is a simple process with better service life. It gives high quality with low environmental pollution making it a good competitive method. After comparing the two methods, we can conclude that arc spray process is used if we want good control and for better quality, on the other hand hot-dip galvanizing is used for mass production as it turns to be economical. 6. 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